Tables and figures are often the first things examiners and reviewers look at when they open a thesis or paper. Many readers skim the text, then study the visuals to understand the main results. A clear, well-designed table or figure can communicate complex findings in seconds. A cluttered, poorly labelled one can confuse readers, hide important results and make your work look careless.
This post explains when to use tables versus figures, the basic rules for formatting each, how to write titles, notes and captions, how to refer to them in the text, and the most common mistakes to avoid. The guidance follows widely used academic conventions such as APA style, but always check your university's thesis guidelines or your target journal's requirements, because details vary.
Tables or figures: which should I use?
Use a table when:
- Readers need exact values, such as means, standard deviations, coefficients or p-values.
- You are presenting many numbers across several variables or groups.
- You want to show detailed comparisons, such as regression results or descriptive statistics.
- You are summarising qualitative information, such as participant characteristics, themes and example quotes.
Use a figure when:
- You want to show patterns, trends or relationships that are easier to see visually.
- You want to show change over time, such as a line graph.
- You want to compare groups quickly, such as a bar chart with error bars.
- You want to show a distribution, such as a histogram or boxplot.
- You are presenting a model or process, such as a conceptual framework, research design diagram or thematic map.
- You are showing images, such as microscope images, photographs or maps.
Use neither when:
If you only have two or three numbers, a sentence is usually clearer than a table or figure. For example, “The mean age was 34.2 years (SD = 8.1)” does not need its own table.
General principles
- Each table or figure should have a clear purpose. Ask: what should the reader learn from this?
- Tables and figures should be understandable on their own. A reader should be able to interpret them without searching the text, thanks to a clear title, labels and notes.
- Keep them simple. Remove anything that does not help communication.
- Be consistent. Use the same fonts, styles, decimal places and terminology throughout your thesis.
- Do not duplicate. Do not present the same data in both a table and a figure unless there is a good reason.
How to format tables
Numbering and titles
Number tables in the order they appear (Table 1, Table 2, or Table 4.1, 4.2 for chapter-based numbering). In APA style (7th edition), the table number appears in bold above the table, and the title appears on the next line in italic title case. Other styles place both on one line. Follow your required format.
A good title is brief but specific: “Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Study Variables” is better than “Results”.
Structure
- Column headings should be short and clear. Include units where relevant, such as “Age (years)” or “Thickness (nm)”.
- Row labels should be consistent and logically ordered, for example following the order of your research questions or model.
- Align numbers on the decimal point for easy comparison.
- Use consistent decimal places, typically two for most statistics. In APA style, values that cannot exceed 1, such as correlations and p-values, are reported without a leading zero (for example, .45 rather than 0.45).
Lines and borders
Academic tables usually use minimal horizontal lines: one above and below the column headings and one at the bottom of the table. Avoid vertical lines and heavy grid borders, which make tables look cluttered.
Notes
Table notes appear below the table. They can include:
- General notes: explaining abbreviations, units or the source of the data.
- Specific notes: referring to particular cells, rows or columns using superscript letters.
- Probability notes: explaining asterisks, such as “*p < .05. **p < .01.”
Reproducing or adapting tables
If you reproduce or adapt a table from another source, cite it in the note, for example “Adapted from Smith (2020)”. For published theses and papers, you may also need copyright permission.
How to format figures
Numbering and captions
Number figures separately from tables (Figure 1, Figure 2, or Figure 4.1). In APA style, the figure number and title appear above the figure; many other styles and scientific journals place the caption below. Follow your guidelines.
Axes and labels
- Label both axes clearly, with units.
- Start axes at zero for bar charts, because truncated axes can exaggerate differences.
- Use readable font sizes; text in figures should be legible when printed.
- Include a legend if there is more than one data series, or label lines directly.
Showing uncertainty
When presenting means, show variability or uncertainty, such as error bars representing standard deviation, standard error or 95% confidence intervals. State clearly in the caption which one the error bars represent, because they mean very different things.
Colour and accessibility
- Use colour purposefully, not decoratively.
- Choose colour schemes that remain distinguishable for readers with colour vision deficiency, and that still work in greyscale printing. Using different line styles or markers as well as colours helps.
- Avoid 3D effects, shadows and unnecessary backgrounds. They add visual noise and can distort data perception.
Image quality
Use high-resolution images, such as vector formats or images at the resolution required by your university or journal. Blurry or pixelated figures reflect poorly on your work. For microscopy and similar images, include scale bars.
Choosing the right type of chart
- Bar chart: comparing values across categories.
- Line graph: showing trends over time or continuous change.
- Scatter plot: showing the relationship between two continuous variables.
- Histogram: showing the distribution of a continuous variable.
- Boxplot: showing median, spread and outliers, and comparing distributions across groups.
- Pie chart: sometimes used for parts of a whole, but often less clear than a bar chart; use sparingly, and avoid it for many categories.
- Path or model diagram: showing hypothesised relationships or SEM results.
Referring to tables and figures in the text
- Refer to every table and figure in the text before or near where it appears, for example “As shown in Table 4.2...” or “(see Figure 3)”.
- Explain what the reader should notice, rather than repeating all the numbers. For example: “Table 4.2 shows that job satisfaction was highest among senior staff and lowest among new employees.”
- Capitalise “Table” and “Figure” when referring to a specific numbered item.
Presenting qualitative results in tables and figures
Tables and figures are not only for quantitative data. In qualitative research, you might use:
- A table of participant characteristics, using pseudonyms or codes.
- A table of themes, sub-themes and illustrative quotes.
- A thematic map showing relationships between themes.
- A process diagram for a grounded theory model.
Keep quotes short in tables and make sure no combination of details could identify participants.
Before and after: improving a results table
Consider a common scenario. A student copies an SPSS regression output table directly into the thesis. It contains columns for unstandardised B, standard error, standardised Beta, t and Sig., uses three decimal places, shows “.000” in the significance column, includes a default SPSS title such as “Coefficientsa”, and has grid lines on every cell.
An improved version would:
- Have a clear number and title, such as “Table 4.6 Multiple Regression Predicting Turnover Intention”.
- Keep only the columns readers need, often B, SE, β, and p, plus 95% confidence intervals if required.
- Use two decimal places for coefficients and report very small p-values as “< .001” rather than “.000”.
- Add model statistics, such as R², adjusted R² and the overall F test, in a row or note at the bottom.
- Use descriptive variable names, such as “Supervisor support”, rather than SPSS variable codes like “SUPSUP_M”.
- Use minimal horizontal lines and no vertical lines.
- Include a note explaining abbreviations and any coding, such as “Gender coded 0 = male, 1 = female”.
The data are the same in both versions, but the improved table is far easier to read and looks professional.
Where to place tables and figures
Most universities prefer tables and figures to be placed as close as possible to where they are first mentioned in the text, usually after the paragraph that introduces them. Very large or supplementary tables, such as full item lists, full correlation matrices or detailed output, can go into appendices, with a reference in the main text. Some journals ask for tables and figures at the end of the manuscript or as separate files during submission, so check the instructions for authors.
Also include a list of tables and a list of figures after your table of contents, if your university requires it. Word processors can generate these automatically if you use the built-in caption feature, which also keeps numbering correct when you add or move items.
Common mistakes to avoid
- Pasting raw software output (such as SPSS tables) directly into the thesis.
- Missing or vague titles, such as “Figure 1: Graph”.
- Unlabelled axes or missing units.
- Inconsistent formatting between tables.
- Too many decimal places.
- 3D charts, heavy gridlines or decorative colours.
- Tables split awkwardly across pages without repeated headers.
- Figures and tables that are never mentioned in the text.
- Error bars without explanation.
A final checklist
- Is each table or figure necessary?
- Is it numbered correctly and referred to in the text?
- Does it have a clear, specific title?
- Are all labels, units and abbreviations explained?
- Can it be understood without reading the text?
- Is the formatting consistent with other tables and figures?
- Is it readable in print and in greyscale?
- Are sources cited if adapted from other work?
Final thoughts
Good tables and figures make your research easier to understand and more convincing. Choose the right format for your message, keep designs clean and consistent, label everything clearly, and guide readers through the key points in your text. Investing time in presentation pays off: it shows examiners and reviewers that you understand your results and care about communicating them accurately.
Do you have a table or figure you are unsure how to present? Describe it in the comments and we will suggest a format.